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An overview of the role of musk and musk compounds in the fragrance industry is given. Discovery and syntheses of representatives occurring naturally in animals and plants as well as of artificial substances possessing musk-like odor properties are reviewed. Examples of the three major classes – nitro musks, polycyclic musks, and macrocyclic musks – are covered. The importance of these compounds as...
Nitro musks and polycyclic musks are used as synthetic musk compounds in almost all scented consumer products, such as perfumes, cosmetics, and certain cleaning agents. After application they are dumped via waste water treatment plants into the aquatic environment. In this chapter all data so far published on synthetic musks in surface, waste, and drinking water are presented and discussed. Furthermore,...
Nitro musk and polycyclic musk fragrances accumulate in solid matters of the aquatic environment. They are analyzed by extraction with an organic solvent and subsequent measurement by GC/MS. Among the polycyclic musks AHTN and HHCB are the dominating contaminants; DPMI, ADBI, AHDI, and ATII are partly found, but at significantly lower concentrations. Within the nitro musk compounds only musk xylene...
Musk compounds are widely spread environmental pollutants. Musk compounds were found in aquatic organisms from the North Sea, in rivers, lakes and estuaries in Canada, Czech Republic, Germany, Italy, Luxembourg, Japan, Norway, Switzerland, Sweden, and The Netherlands. Two nitro musks, musk xylene (MX) and musk ketone (MK), and two polycyclic musks (HHCB and AHTN) were the major musk compounds determined...
For the first time, the presence of synthetic musks is confirmed and investigated in air samples. New analytical methods are described developed for the purpose of ultra trace analysis of synthetic musks in low contaminated samples including ambient air. In order to achieve the lowest possible detection limits and avoid sample and laboratory contamination, a rigid quality control/quality assurance...
House dust is a sink and repository for semi-volatile organic compounds and particle bound organic matter. Although data are available on the occurrence of pesticides, plasticizers, endocrine disrupters, and other organics that are persistent in house dust, reports on analytical methods and concentrations of synthetic musks in house dust are limited. The development of methods to analyze synthetic...
This chapter compiles some data on the occurrence and fate of synthetic musk compounds in the aquatic environment of Berlin, Germany. The city of Berlin and its suburbs represent a highly urbanized area with low surface water flows and high amounts of raw sewage produced by a population of around 4 million people. The treated sewage effluents from the municipal sewage treatment plants, containing...
Until the middle of the 1990s, no attention was paid to the pollution of the environment in Czech Republic by synthetic musk fragrances and to the exposure of Czech population to these xenobiotics. However, in response to increasing information on high levels of synthetic musks in freshwater ecosystem reported by many industrial countries in the last decade, extensive monitoring study was conducted...
Synthetic musks are being transformed to intermediates or relatively stable metabolites that may exhibit a strong potential for environmental harm. For example, microbial metabolisation of nitro musks in aquatic ecosystems preferentially gives rise to the formation of the amino derivatives, and, as a consequence, benzene-amine derivatives were found in environmental samples in higher concentrations...
In this chapter the application of enantioselective chromatography to process studies related to the microbial, enzymatic and photochemical transformation of chiral polycyclic musks will be summarised. A detailed discussion on enantiomeric ratios (ER) of HHCB, AHTN, ATII and AHDI as well as of the main HHCB metabolite HHCB-lactone analysed in tissue extracts of 18 fish samples (rudd, tench, crucian...
Due to the fact that both nitro and polycyclic musk fragrances and their metabolites are not readily biodegradable in most sewage treatment plants and thus appear in the aquatic environment, the emphasis in this chapter is laid on understanding and evaluating their potential for bioaccumulation and hence their possible adverse impact (acute and chronic toxicity) on aquatic ecosystems. The bioaccumulation...
The theory of environmental fate and distribution models is briefly introduced. Afterwards, by means of the models laid down in the European Union System for the Evaluation of Substances (EUSES) and the Geography-referenced Regional Exposure Assessment Tool for European Rivers (GREAT-ER) environmental concentrations of the polycyclic musk fragrance HHCB (1,3,4,6,7,8-hexahydro-4,6,6,7,8,8-hexamethyl-cyclopenta-[...
Synthetic musk compounds (musk fragrances) are chemically heterogeneous compounds. The available toxicological data are incomplete. The NOAEL (No Observed Adverse Effect Level) values, obtained in experimental toxicological studies, are of preliminary nature and can only serve as rough estimates. In the light of the available results and ongoing studies, it therefore seems prudent, in the sense of...
Synthetic musk compounds comprising nitro musks, polycyclic musks and macrocyclic musks are used in fragrances which are added to a variety of cosmetic as well non-cosmetic household products. The main source of human exposure to musks is fresh water fish, as a result of water contamination from the sewage plants, and a dermal application of cosmetics. The musks accumulate in human adipose tissue...
Although the environmental risk assessments for the nitro musks, musk ketone and musk xylene, and the polycyclic musks, AHTN and HHCB, showed that the risks of these fragrance ingredients were low, questions regarding their environmental behaviour and fate stimulated further research. The removal during the sewage treatment process of AHTN, HHCB, musk ketone and musk xylene is 89, 92, 83 and 99%,...
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