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The assumption that trade-offs exist is fundamental in evolutionary theory. Levins (Am. Nat. 96 (1962) 361-372) introduced a widely adopted graphical method for analyzing evolution towards an optimal combination of two quantitative traits, which are traded off. His approach explicitly excluded the possibility of density- and frequency-dependent selection. Here we extend Levins method towards models,...
. In insect-pollinated plants flowers must balance the benefits of attracting pollinators with the cost of attracting natural enemies, when these respond to floral traits. This dilemma can have important evolutionary consequences for mating-system evolution and polymorphisms for floral traits. We investigate the benefits and risks associated with flower size and sex morph variation in Dianthus sylvestris...
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