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Mutualisms are of fundamental importance in all ecosystems but their very existence poses a series of challenging evolutionary questions. Recently, the application of molecular analyses combined with theoretical advances have transformed our understanding of many specific systems, thereby contributing to the possibility of a more general understanding of the factors that influence mutualisms.
In haplodiploid species, the presence of unmated (virgin) females that can produce only haploid male offspring may have several important effects on a range of phenomena such as reproductive strategies, the transmission of parasitic chromosomes and the evolution of eusociality. The strength of these effects will depend upon the prevalence of virgin females. Two theories make conflicting predictions...
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