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Hepatic encephalopathy (HE) is seen as the clinical manifestation of a low grade cerebral edema with formation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RNOS). Astrocyte swelling is a crucial event and in cultured astrocytes HE-relevant factors almost instantaneously induce the formation of RNOS. However, short term effects of ammonia, inflammatory cytokines and RNOS on the volume of astrocytes and...
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