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When vertebrate physiological ecologists use the terms ‘stress’ or ‘physiological stress’, they typically mean the level of hypothalamus–pituitary–adrenal (HPA-) axis activation. Measurements of stress hormone concentrations (e.g. glucocorticoids in blood, urine or faeces), leukocytes (e.g. the neutrophil–lymphocyte ratio or heterophil equivalent), immunofunction (e.g. innate, cell-mediated or humoral...
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