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Bacterial symbiosis has played a fundamental role in the evolution of eukaryotes. However, we still know little about how cooperative relationships with bacteria originate, and why they form in some host species but not others. Facultative symbionts that are beneficial, but not essential, provide unique insights into these processes. We use data from over a hundred aphid species to test if host life...
1. Variation in the effectiveness of mutualistic associations is well characterized in plant–soil symbiont interactions, yet there are little empirical data providing insight into how such variation evolves and persists in natural settings.
2. Heterogeneity in the strength and direction of co‐evolutionary selection among spatially discrete demes is predicted to be important for the maintenance of...
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