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Internationally, breast cancer is the most common cancer among women. Approximately 1% of breast cancers are diagnosed in men. Treatment involves a tailored approach to combine surgery, radiation, hormone, biological and chemotherapies in an attempt to optimize survival while minimizing morbidity, and to avoid over‐treatment. Prognostication based on pathological factors and genetic expression provides...
Oesophageal cancer is the eighth most common cancer worldwide, and the sixth most common cause of death from cancer. Huge differences exist in aetiology, epidemiology, biological characteristics, presentation, and prognosis between squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma of the oesophagus. Management strategies depend on tumour staging as well as performance status of patients. Generally speaking,...
Bladder cancer is a common disease, although its epidemiology differs around the world. Environmental and behavioural factors are important in its aetiology. Significant differences in the biology of different types of non‐muscle‐invasive bladder urothelial cancer, or differences between upper and lower tract cancers, have now been recognized. Management involves multidisciplinary engagement in terms...
Hodgkin lymphoma is the classical type, with a small proportion of nodular lymphocyte‐predominant histology, and usually presents at a localized stage. Non‐Hodgkin lymphoma has many subtypes, but most are of B‐cell origin, and can broadly be divided between aggressive and indolent histologies for treatment purposes. There is large geographical variation between the individual subtypes of non‐Hodgkin...
Leukaemia, although not a common malignancy, poses a major challenge both in diagnosis and treatment. In recent years, a dramatic advance has been made in our understanding of the heterogeneous biology of this disease owing to innovative techniques such as whole‐genome sequencing. This has led to improved classification and genetic risk stratification and hence, to a refined risk‐adapted therapy....
Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is one of the most interesting cancers with a distinctly skewed distribution. The aetiology is multifactorial (genetic predisposition, Epstein‐Barr virus infection and environmental carcinogens). The most significant prognostic factors include TNM staging, tumour volume, EBV‐DNA copies, age and gender. Radiotherapy is the primary treatment modality, with the intensity‐modulated...
Thyroid cancer can develop from follicular cells of the thyroid, including papillary and follicular (differentiated thyroid cancer), insular and anaplastic thyroid cancers, and those derived from C cells of the thyroid, the medullary thyroid cancers. The usual presentation and work‐up will be discussed. The initial treatment for all thyroid malignancies (lymphoma excepted) is surgery. The controversies...
Soft tissue sarcoma is a rare disease requiring multimodality discussion and management. Just over half of these tumours originate in the limbs approximately 40% arise in the retroperitoneum/visceral tissues and torso and the remainder occur in the head and neck region (10%). In general, the treatment approach is surgery with or without the addition of local radiotherapy. Radiation therapy may include...
Cancer of unknown primary site (CUP) possesses a unique natural history of early systemic dissemination from an occult primary, resulting in atypical high‐volume metastases. Histologically, adenocarcinoma is the commonest type followed by undifferentiated and squamous cell pathology. Studies on the biology of CUP established active angiogenesis, tumour suppressor and oncogene aberrations, active AKT...
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