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Tungsten oxide layer is formed uniformly by a sol–gel technique on top of indium tin oxide as a neutral and photo-stable hole extraction layer (HEL). The solution processed tungsten oxide layer (sWO 3 ) is fully characterized by UV–Vis, XPS, UPS, XRD, AFM, and TEM. Optical transmission of ITO/sWO 3 substrates is nearly identical to ITOs. In addition, the sWO 3 layer induces...
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