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Before 2003 blackout, protection engineers didn't pay much attention to this phenomenon; it was not even part of relay acceptance testing. However, multiple nuisance trips during this blackout, forced system operators to look at this problem and re-evaluate relay performance for such conditions. In fact, Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) has appealed to the IEEE Power System Relaying Committee...
This paper presents an operational experience with incipient faults: it has been observed that 10 to 15% of cable faults are preceded by incipient faults. Practically all incipient faults become permanent faults in the period between a few seconds to few weeks. Incipient faults occurring in fast successions create considerable over-voltages and induce faults on other feeders. A method has been presented...
This paper presents balance equations for ultra-sensitive protection of shunt capacitor banks taking into account both an inherent (pre-existing) unbalance in the protected bank, and an unbalance in the power system. Four methods are derived: voltage differential, neutral voltage unbalance, phase current unbalance, and neutral current unbalance. These methods are generalizations of the known protection...
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