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Analysis of family members is central to understanding the causation of biological variation, either genetic or environmental. Rarely, however, is the answer one or the other; variation in the craniofacial complexes, including occlusal variation (“malocclusion”), is almost always some complex combination of nature and nurture. Heritability is the proportion of a trait's variation that, under ideal,...
External apical root resorption (EARR) is the most common iatrogenic consequence of orthodontics, and orthodontics is the most common cause of EARR. Localized root resorption is a normal and constant remodeling process, a response to oral microtraumas throughout life. Roots do not shorten naturally with age unless forces (eg, bruxism, tongue thrusting) overcompress the periodontal ligament. Appositional...
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