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Cardiovascular disease is one of the most common causes of mortality affecting both men and women in industrialized nations. Sex-related differences have been well established with regard to heart and vascular function as well as cardiovascular disease processes. Nevertheless, the precise mechanisms of action behind these gender-related differences are poorly understood. Premenopausal women have a...
Senescence is associated with enhanced risk of cardiovascular diseases. It is generally considered that decline in growth hormones (such as insulin-like growth factor I), intrinsic myocardial and endothelial functions, as well as accumuation of reactive oxygen species with increased age may contribute to cardiovascular senescence. It is believed that heart function, especially cardiac reserve declines...
Although favorable effects of estrogen replacement therapy on atherosclerosis have been recognized, the benefit versus risk of estrogen replacement on overall cardiovascular health remains controversial. The main adverse effect jeopardizing the clinical usage of estrogen is the increased risk of breast and endometrial cancer. Zearalenone (ZEN) is a universal endogenous hormone possessing estrogen-like...
While the benefit and risk of estrogen replacement therapy for cardiovascular disease remains controversial, women frequently choose alternatives to estrogen such as phytoestrogen for treatment of menopause even though medical indications for estrogens may exist. Phytoestrogens also possess distinct advantages over mammalian estrogens because their usage in men without feminizing side effects. Nevertheless,...
Although many aspects of cardiovascular disease are similar between women and men, it is becoming increasingly obvious that there are significant differences as well. Premenopausal women ususally have a lower risk of cardiovascular diseases than age-matched men and postmenopausal women. However, the “female advantage” disappears once women are affilicted with diabetes mellitus. Heart diseases are...
Oxidative modification of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) leads to formation of the atherogenic molecule oxidized LDL (oxLDL), which is considered to be an important mediator for vascular endothelial dysfunction and atherosclerosis. It is speculated that reduced nitric oxide (NO) release/bioavailability and enhanced release of endothelin-1 (ET-1) may contribute to oxLDL-induced endothelial dysfunction...
Estrogen replacement therapy (ERT) is one of the most challenging issues women and their physicians have to face. Clinical and epidemiological studies have provided conflicting data regarding the cardiovascular benefit versus risk in women using ERT. Although ERT may improve several risk factors of coronary heart disease such as favorable changes in lipid profile, an associated increased incidence...
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