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Effects of ion–ion interactions on metal toxicity to lettuce Lactuca sativa were studied based on the electrical potential at the plasma membrane surface (ψ0). Surface interactions at the proximate outside of the membrane influenced ion activities at the plasma membrane surface ({Mn+}0). At a given free Cu2+ activity in the bulk medium ({Cu2+}b), additions of Na+, K+, Ca2+, and Mg2+ resulted in substantial...
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