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This article first reviews the principal monitoring requirements of the Water Framework Directive (WFD) of the European Union (EU) and assesses how contaminant monitoring may fit into a risk-assessment approach. In this context, we show the limited ability of conventional trace-contaminant-monitoring methods to fulfil all of the WFD requirements. We then clearly define and exemplify the roles and...
Until now, water quality monitoring has relied heavily on spot sampling followed by instrumental analytical measurements to determine pollutant concentrations. Despite a number of advantages, this procedure has considerable limitations in terms of (i) temporal and spatial resolution that may be achieved at reasonable cost, and (ii) the information on bioavailability that may be obtained. Successful...
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