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The ions Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Cl−, SO42−, and HCO3−/CO32− (referred to in the present study as “major ions”) are present in all freshwaters and physiologically required by aquatic organisms but can increase to harmful levels from a variety of anthropogenic activities. It is also known that the toxicities of major ion salts can vary depending on the concentrations of other ions, and understanding...
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