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Material for shielding against ionizing radiation. X rays and γ rays are best absorbed with high-Z materials (e.g. lead or tungsten). The absorption of neutrons is best done with substances containing a high fraction of hydrogen. Neutrons can also be captured in boron or cadmium. α rays are of very short range and can be stopped even with thin foils. β rays should be absorbed with low-Z materials...
Radiation-protection regulations concern ionizing radiation like α, β, γ radiation and neutrons. Separate regulations concern the handling of X rays and X-ray-generating devices. γ radiation and X rays are electromagnetic waves: they differ from visible light or microwave radiation only by their energy or, equivalently, by their frequency or wavelength. It is only natural to ask to what extent electromagnetic...
Life on Earth has developed under permanent exposure to radiation. In addition to ionizing radiation from natural sources a multitude of exposures from artificial sources produced by mankind came into play in the twentieth century. These radioactive sources have been introduced and used in the course of the rapid development of medical diagnostics and therapy and natural science and technology.
It is impossible to smell, see, taste, or sense ionizing radiation. Humans have no senses for α, β, and γ rays, therefore, one has to develop detectors to replace the missing capability to see, smell, taste, or sense ionizing radiation. The necessity for the measurement of radiation exposures originates from the fact that this type of radiation has to be surveyed, controlled, and limited. Humans also...
The regulations on the handling of X rays are very similar to the regulations on standard radiation protection. The X-ray regulations in the European Union apply to those X-ray tubes and X-ray installations in which electrons are accelerated at least to 5 keV and in which they are limited to a maximum energy of 1 MeV. All installations in which electrons can be accelerated to energies beyond 1 MeV...
Natural radioactivity from the environment has three components: cosmic rays, terrestrial radiation, ingestion (eating, drinking, and breathing). Cosmic rays from our Sun and our galaxy and terrestrial radiation from the Earth crust as well as incorporations of radioisotopes from the biosphere represent whole-body exposures. A special role is played by the inhalation of the radioactive noble gas radon...
What is the maximum permitted dose equivalent for the effective whole-body dose per year for radiation-exposed workers (over 18 years) of category A according to the ICRP recommendations?
Many radiation accidents in the fields of medicine and technology are caused by losses and careless disposal of radioactive material. The reason for unnecessary exposures is frequently due to improper storage of disused radioactive sources. Unused sources have been found in scrapyards where they were ‘discovered’ by children, who were fond of finding pieces of e.g. good-looking silver-gray cobalt...
It is the aim of safety measures in the field of radiation protection to avoid unnecessary radiation exposures, contaminations and ingestion and inhalation of radioactive material (‘incorporations’). To a certain extent, of course, there are radiation exposures which are unavoidable, but it is the aim to reduce these unavoidable radiation exposures, contaminations or incorporations to a level as low...
The responsibility for the correct integration of the radiation-protection rules in a company, nuclear power plant, research center, or an university lies in the hands of the radiation-protection supervisor. The radiation-protection supervisor has to appoint in a radiationradiation-protection directive protection directive an appropriate number of radiation-protection officers for the control and...
Charged particles (electrons, positrons, protons, helium nuclei, …) will ionize matter in a direct way, in contrast to neutral particles (neutrons, neutrinos, …) or short-wavelength electromagnetic radiation (X rays and γ rays), which will ionize only indirectly. Strictly speaking, radiation is never directly measured, rather it can only be detected via its interaction with matter. A large number...
A large number of units has been proposed and used in the course of historical development and research in the field of radioactivity. Only those which have survived to today shall be used and defined here. I will introduce the modern units which are recommended by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP). In addition, I will also mention those units which are still in use in...
Any radiation exposure might have negative effects on health. This can be considered as the basic principle of radiation protection. It is therefore no surprise that radiation damage due to ionizing radiation was first observed right after the discovery of radioactivity by Becquerel. The biological effect of ionizing radiation is a consequence of the energy transfer by ionization and excitation to...
The chemical properties of elements are characterized by the number of positively charged nucleons (protons) and the (identical) number of electrons. Atoms consisting of a compact nucleus and an electron shell have diameters on the order of 10−10 m. Atomic nuclei are much smaller than atoms, their diameter is on the order of 10−15 m. Nearly all the mass of an atom is concentrated in the atomic nucleus.
Fission power plants take advantage of the dependence of the binding energy per nucleon binding energy per nucleon on the mass of nuclei. The binding energy of uranium is about 7.5 MeV/nucleon, that of the fission products is about 8.5 MeV/nucleon. Since the fission products are more tightly bound, they have a smaller mass per nucleon. The fission of a uranium nucleus, therefore, liberates a mass...
One might assume that only radioisotopes are significant sources of radiation. The rapid development in basic physics research and its technical applications have created a variety of possibilities for producing nearly all sufficiently long-lived elementary particles and photons in the form of radiation sources. The energy range from ultracold particles (≪ 25 me V) up to energies of 1 TeV can be covered...
The International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) has proposed safety standards to protect the health of workers and the general public against the dangers arising from ionizing radiation. The recommendations are laid down in a European Directive (Council Directive 96/29/EURATOM) which was presented to the Member States of the European Community. The report requested the different countries...
The book presents an accessible account of the sources of ionising radiation and the methods of radiation protection. The basics of nuclear physics which are directly related to radiation protection are briefly discussed. The book describes the units of radiation protection, the measurement techniques, biological effects of radiation, environmental radiation, and many applications of radiation....
The book describes the branch of astrophysics in which processes in the universe are investigated with experimental methods known from particle physics experiments. After a historical introduction to the basics of elementary particles, their interactions and the relevant detection techniques are described. The main body of the book concerns cosmic rays. The modern aspects of astroparticle physics...
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