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Agro-ecosystems are ecosystems managed by farmers and hence there is control over the fluxes of mass and energy within these systems. Rising population growth on one hand and reduced acreages of farm-land on the other, particularly in the developing countries, have increased demands for the use of many of their natural resources (Bauhus et al. 2002; Stephens et al. 2003). For example, one estimate...
We deal here with the strategic use of climate information in the adoption of microclimate modification techniques in monocropping (e.g. Barfield and Gerber 1979). This is about decreasing or increasing the exposure of surfaces, either the actual soil surface or the more composite surfaces including above surface living and dead material, to radiation, precipitation and wind and/or changing the original...
A representative example of homegardens in Sumatra, Indonesia, is given by Michon and Mary (1990). Families which cannot produce enough rice even for their own needs depend on tree gardens for survival and use them intensively for subsistence as well as monetary needs. Subsistence production is increased through introduction of vegetable crops in clear places under the tree canopy. Moreover, wild...
It was not that easy to find material on covered crops that fitted this book. There is much literature on greenhouses with climate control but little on the simple tunnelsthat would be helpful in developing countries. A good introduction, without literature but with websites, was provided by Carvajal Ortiz (2003). He mentions more yields, lower production costs, better prices, quality, lower use of...
Integrated qualitative and semi-quantitative information on weather and livestock management, more in general and under severe weather and climatic conditions, was reviewed by CAgM (Box III.6.1).
Science has contributed at least a definition of forest and forest lands based on tree formation structure as well as of trees outside forests (Box III.4.15). Giving developments in tree use and agroforestry as well as in agriculture taking place in forests, science may want to revise such definitions from time to time.
Every assessment of the plausible impacts of climate variability and change on any sector must be based on an as far as possible quantitative appraisal of what future climate will look like and how its variability will be. But it happens that future climate conditions and variability can’t be predicted in the same sense that the weather for the next 5 days can be forecasted in national meteorological...
Trees outside forests and agroforestry are defined in Box III.5.1. It is recognized (Stolton et al. 2008) that there have been many international agreements and declarations linking the preservation of ecosystem services with the mitigation of disasters. But it must be noted that in many cases it is only the permanent and well-managed setting aside of land and sea as protected areas which can provide...
In the case studies considered here, land suitability for non-forest trees may be seen in two main different perspectives: (i) improvement of traditional farming systems or (ii) improving/selecting conventional cultivation sites. The two approaches are remarkably different.
Climate is a non monetary input influencing the performance of forest production systems for the efficient use of monetary inputs. (Micro)climatic events also largely determine the efficiency of external inputs in agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry and fisheries. In forestry, climatic information and its application to input management has immense value. From the time seeds are sown and plants...
We started Sect. III.2.5.(δ) with the statement that risk information products are building stones of agrometeorological services (also Stigter 2005; Rathore and Stigter 2007). An example from Nigeria for intercropping was shown by Stigter et al. (2005). This picture for multiple cropping was drawn for Africa as early as 15 years ago (Oluwasemire et al. 1995) but for China only recently (Stigter et...
There are three ways of combating disasters in agriculture: weakening disaster sources, strengthening crop resistance, and separating crops from disasters temporally and/or spatially. The latter can be done by adjusting sowing time or crop distribution and by covering cropping systems. People have always protected their crops from unfavourable climatic effects. Shrubs and walls protect against the...
It should be noted that we have left the livestock component out here because it has been dealt with in Sect. III.3.1.(e) and Chap. III.6.(A). Since we have handled quite some general aspects of this new subject in other sections, we deal here with a case study on the importance of a correct management of interrows of orchards and vineyards, such as with cover crops to prevent soil erosion and to...
II.1 Protocol number 1 Short name of the example: Design of sand settlement of wind blown sand using local trees and grasses A. Country/Province where the example was found Sudan, Central Sudan, eastern side of the White Nile (south of El Geteina) B. Institute providing the example (with address) University of Gezira, Department of Natural Resources and Environment, Faculty of Agriculture, P.O. Box 20, Wad Medani, Sudan...
In Chap. III.1, multiple cropping systems relevant to this section have been discussed. Understanding on the phenomena, impacts, actions, problems, solutions and policies related to priority extreme meteorological events that cause farmers and their local governments the largest difficulties in multiple cropping in a region may, with the exception of the phenomena, be supposed to be different from...
Section III.2.4.(II) started with the observation that sustainable agricultural production needs activities which provide information aimed at helping tactical decision makers apply weather and climate information to minimize negative consequences of adverse weather and to take advantage of favorable weather conditions. Most of what was said in that section applies to multiple cropping systems also,...
An adequate supply of livestock fodder is crucial to the livelihoods of millions of people across the developing world. Livestock producers meet their fodder requirements through a combination of crop residues and grazing on common lands, private lands, forests, fallow agricultural lands and harvested agricultural lands. Availability and access to quality fodder resources and water, however, is emerging...
This is a short case study review of the strategic use of climate information in combating disasters in a development context (e.g. Glantz 1997; Südmeier-Rieux et al. 2006; Sacks and Rosenzweig 2007). Box III.2.1 reviews what we do in this book on this subject. We like Lassa's (2006) approach considering a disaster the forced marriage between a hazard and vulnerability. The purpose then is to increase...
Case studies of combating disasters (as the forced marriages between hazards and vulnerabilities, see Sect. III.2.1.(a)) in a multiple cropping context must start around traditional agro-ecological balances and diversity purposely kept (e.g. Singh 1996; Ramprasad 1999; Upawansa 2003; Dessein 2005; Shankar 2005) or (re)designed (e.g. Altieri 1996; Maita and Verweij 1996; Riggs 2003; Onduru et al. 2003;...
Climate and weather related risk assessments are deep looks at what can go wrong in farming due to the (changing) environment. After such an analysis it has to be decided with what accessible ways and means to minimize the potential threats of that (changing) environment to crop production. Garcia et al. in Andre et al. (2010) stated that agricultural planning – strategic and tactical – needs to appreciate...
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